NIAS Fortnightly on Science, Technology & International Relations

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CWA # 570, 19 October 2021
NIAS Fortnightly on Science, Technology & International Relations
Cover Story: War against Malaria

  STIR Team

NIAS Fortnightly on Science, Technology and International Relations (STIR), Vol 1, No 11, 19 October 2021.

Cover Story
By Rishabh Kachroo

War against Malaria:
Will the WHO-Approved RTS,S Vaccine be a gamechanger?

Though the newly approved RTS,S/AS01 vaccine provides a ray of hope for regions severely affected by malaria-like Africa, the road ahead is a long and difficult one. Producing more efficacious vaccines, increasing healthcare funding, and a deeply entrenched apathy of the Global North towards the Global South are some of the key challenges in the way of the complete elimination of malaria.

 

Introduction
On 6 October 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) authorized the use of RTS,S/AS01 (RTS,S, in short) malaria vaccine for children primarily in the sub-Saharan African region against P. falciparum, the deadliest human malaria parasite. Owing to the complex life cycle of the parasite and immunity being stage-specific, funding challenges, policy implementation roadblocks, and general apathy of the Global North towards the Global South, malaria vaccine development has been an extremely slow process. It is also important to mention here that while P. falciparum may be the deadliest of the malarial parasites, it is not the most widespread — that would be P. vivax. While the development and approval of this vaccine should be celebrated, it is also important to remember that a lot of work still lies ahead. RTS,S/AS01 has a modest efficacy of about 30 percent (after a series of 4 injections) in preventing severe malaria cases in children below the age of five. 

This vaccine is a result of the Malaria Vaccine Implementation Programme that began in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi in 2019. According to Dr. Matshidiso Moeti, the WHO Regional Director for Africa, this vaccine provides a glimmer of hope, and it is important to consider it exactly that — a glimmer [1]. The pilot program's goal was to reach 360,000 children each year in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi. Following were the key findings of the malaria vaccine pilot studies according to the WHO: delivery feasibility; improved equity in access to malaria prevention; favourable safety profile; no negative impact on other childhood vaccinations and existing health-seeking behaviour for febrile illnesses; high impact in real-life childhood vaccination settings; and cost-effectiveness. 

This pilot programme will continue in order to better understand the long-term impacts of the vaccine [2]. The vaccine development was spearheaded by the pharma behemoth GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and as with many other scientific and technological innovations, this one too has origin in the needs of the military, specifically the American military, roots of which go back to the Revolutionary War (1776-1783). However, it was during the Vietnam War, when the Americans lost more troops to malaria than actual bullets, that they established the malaria drug research programme. American military medical research institutions like the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR), the Navy Medical Research Center (NMRC), and the US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) were, and continue to be, at the forefront. GSK worked closely with WRAIR during the initial phases of the development of the vaccine beginning from 1987. WRAIR also jointly manages the world's largest mosquito collection (1.7 million specimens) [3]. Close to a billion dollars has went into research for the development of RTS,S — funded primarily by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and GSK. 

How does the vaccine work?
It is important to understand the life cycle of the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, before dwelling into the mode of action of RTS,S vaccine. The asexual cycle of Plasmodium in humans takes place through 3 stages: pre-erythrocytic schizogony, erythrocytic schizogony, and gametogony. In the pre-erythrocytic schizogony stage, the sporozoites (infective agent, a spore-like stage of the parasite) of the malarial parasite travel through the host's bloodstream and reach the liver where they transform from their infective stage to the feeding stage. Towards the end of this stage, they attack the red blood cells, thus beginning the erythrocytic stage. In the erythrocytic schizogony stage, the parasite feeds on the haemoglobin and forms the malarial pigment, releasing some undigested products, and hemozoin which results in the malarial paroxysm of fever at the end of each erythrocytic cycle. Finally, in the gametogony stage, transformation of the parasite occurs (gametocytes). Further development of the parasite takes place inside the mosquito through the sexual cycle [4].

Malaria vaccines are classified by the parasite developmental stage that they target: the pre-erythrocytic vaccines, the erythrocytic vaccines, and the sexual stage vaccines. An ideal malaria vaccine would effectively prevent the first stages of parasite development completely, blocking further stages from developing and preventing transmission. As the RTS,S vaccine targets the circumsporozoite protein on the sporozoite surface and targets P. falciparum parasites before they infect the hepatocytes (liver cells), it is considered a pre-erythrocytic vaccine containing Pf-CSP (circumsporozoite protein of P. falciparum) fused with a Hepatitis B antigen and a chemical adjuvant (AS01) [5].

The RTS,S vaccine consists of two parts. The first is the powder or lyophilized form containing the RTS,S antigen. The RTS,S component is based on a large segment of the CSP. The two RTS and S protein components are expressed in genetically engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast cells and then fuse spontaneously into virus-like particles. The second is the liquid suspension of the AS01 adjuvant system. The liquid adjuvant is used to reconstitute the RTS,S lyophilized antigen such that one vial of each produces two doses of vaccine for intramuscular injection [6].

History, linkages, and treatment options
We have known about the connection of malaria with mosquitoes and the parasites belonging to the Plasmodium family since the late 1800s. Alphonse Laveran discovered the parasite in 1880 in the blood of malaria patients. The sexual stages of the life cycle of the parasite were discovered by William MacCallum, while the entire transmission cycle was discovered by Ronald Ross in 1897 [7]. It then took close to fifty years for the discovery of malaria parasites developing in the liver before entering the bloodstream to take place. It was only in 1883 that Albert King came up with the mosquito-malaria hypothesis, building upon the works of Laveran, Patrick Mason (who also separately came up with the mosquito-malaria hypothesis, eventually proven by Ronald Ross for which Ross won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902), and others. 

Figure 1: Illustration by Alphonse Laveran describing the stages of development of the parasite as observed by him. Source: The United States of America's Centre for Disease Control and Prevention

For the most part of history, undeveloped and natural products served as potential antimalarial agents even if they weren't viewed as such. Some natural products seemed to improve the fevers associated with malaria (it wasn't known to be malaria then) and thus found widespread use. Qinghao, for example, was used in China. One of the drugs later to be developed in the fight against malaria would be derived from Qinghao. Five primary antimalarial drugs have existed through the documented history of the world — Quinine, Chloroquine, Sulfadoxine, Mefloquine, and Artemisinin [8].

Quinine is derived from the bark of the Chinchona tree. The Spanish Countess of Chinchon is generally credited with having brought the bark from Peru to Spain in 1638 post which the well-renowned taxonomist Carl Linnaeus named it in her honour. Quinine inhibits the parasite's ability to digest hemoglobin. 

Chloroquine was developed by Hans Andersag and his co-workers over at Bayer Pharmaceuticals as the German government sought alternatives for Quinine. The German Africa Corps used a quinine analogue that fell into the hands of the Americans which sparked their interest in the drug. Its use became widespread during World War II as the Japanese cut off the supplies from the cinchona growing regions of Southeast Asia. 

Sulfadoxine is used for Chloroquine-resistant strains of malaria when given as a combination with Pyrimethamine.

Mefloquine was developed at the WRAIR shortly after the end of the Vietnam war. It binds to the heme protein forming a toxic complex for the parasite. 

Artemisinin was a breakthrough when it was discovered by Tu Youyou (for which she shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015) as it could be used for uncomplicated as well as severe malaria. It could also be used against P. falciparum which is notorious for its severity and widespread resistance to chloroquine and Pyrimethamine/Sulfadoxine. Artemisinin was the drug found in the Qinghao plant used widely in China. 

Africa: A 'disproportionate' sufferer
It would not be an exaggeration to say that a large population in the Global South, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa, has suffered at the hands of this deadly disease. According to the WHO, there were approximately 229 million cases of malaria worldwide in 2019 while fatalities stood at a little less than half a million in the same year. The African region suffers disproportionately as the region was home to 94 percent of the worldwide cases in 2019 [9]. While genuine challenges with drug and vaccine development exist when it comes to malaria owing to the extreme adaptability of the multiple parasites and vectors involved, it is also true that this disease hasn't gotten its fair share of attention from the major pharmaceutical companies and governments. 

Climate is an important factor that determines the distribution and periodicity of malaria — tropical and sub-tropical regions with a generally higher average temperature throughout the year are ideal. The warm climate also means that people wear minimal clothing and are thus more vulnerable to the female Anopheles mosquito which bites at night [10]. While regions of the Global South — primarily sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent  — are most affected by malaria, other regions of the world also suffer from this disease too, even if not at the scale that the Global South does. However, with the use of preventative measures, availability of drugs, and proper policy implementation on the shoulders of a strong political will to act, the disease is largely eradicated from the Global North. 

According to the US Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, "vast majority of cases in the United States are in travelers and immigrants returning from countries where malaria transmission occurs, many from sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia" [11]. The EU deals with a similar situation, having almost 99 percent of the cases in Europe coming from travelers coming from sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, according to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. The very few that originate from within the Global North countries are usually from regions with a similar climate profile to that of either the sub-Saharan African region or the South Asian region [12]. Despite the threat of a local malaria outbreak being close to zero, the countries of the Global North keep a keen eye on any cases that might come up and regularly fund studies and research programs to better understand the disease and its epidemiology.

Figure 2: The spread of malaria in the world. Source: The US's Centre for Disease Control and Prevention

In addition to the health burden, malaria also brings a social and economic avalanche with itself. Malaria is also largely widespread in economically poorer countries. In addition to the sub-Saharan African region, India, as well as Haiti, suffer from a serious malaria problem. In addition to the climate which promotes the increased spread of the disease, the distribution of the Anopheles mosquito, and the vectorial capacity also impact the spread of malaria. Economically disfranchised people bear the brunt as they are least likely to be able to afford preventive measures and medications. In addition to this, widespread impact on children means their growth is stunted because of which they suffer physically, and as they miss their schooling, it eventually culminates in their intellectual stagnation. 

According to the World Malaria Report of 2020, India houses approximately 3 percent of the global malaria case but thankfully due to relatively strong policies and measures in place, it continues to make impressive gains. For example, between 2000 and 2019, India saw malaria cases drop by almost 72 percent and deaths due to malaria drop by almost 74 percent. It also reported a decline of approximately 18 percent in 2019 over 2018 [13].

Figure 3: Epidemiological trends of Malaria in India (2000-2019) Pv; Plasmodium Vivax & Pf; Plasmodium Falciparum. Source: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India

As previously mentioned, the alliance between medicine and major developments in it, and the military is quite strong and the financially, scientifically, and militarily powerful countries dominate the medical innovations field. For the most part, scientific development is a policy issue. Governments need to spend enough for researchers to do their job. Unfortunately, this only happens when a disease either affects the Global North or any country of the Global North has a vested interest. 

Philanthropy is one major source of revenue and drugs/vaccines donations, and while philanthropic funding seems to be quite prominent, as their multiple ad campaigns would like to remind one, it is not a viable solution. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, for example, for the longest time, would continue to 'donate' the vaccine but not share critical scientific knowledge and vaccine technology with the developing world. When philanthropists step in, the structural policy issues of the particular country in question lie dormant and aren't challenged. Since the temporary stop-gap measure seems to be coming in, the governments are usually not incentivized to improve their policies. 

In the words of Rob Reich, who heads Stanford University's Center for Ethics in Society — "Because big philanthropy is an exercise of power, and in a democracy, any form of concentrated power deserves scrutiny, not gratitude" [14]. The organizations enjoy massive tax benefits alongside wielding unaccountable power which eventually undermines democracies and doesn't really do anything to solve the root cause of most problems. It only continues to reinforce capitalism's stronghold on the global economic and political system [15].

Funding, policy, and roll-out challenges
Public health interventions do not happen in a vacuum. They're closely intertwined with the politics of the region. There are policy challenges which exist in rolling out vaccines. The first is the cost effectiveness of the vaccine that governments calculate. If the cost of the vaccine is high and efficacy is low, no matter how much of a difference it still might make, they would be reticent in approving the vaccine. This usually means that philanthropic organizations and pharmaceutical companies 'distribute' a certain number of vaccines. Corporations are driven by profits; and contrary to popular belief, as are philanthropic organizations. The parent body of the philanthropic organization usually makes it a great deal to let the world know of their deeds which only improves their image in public and makes the share value of their stock rise. This also gives them a good image in the people's minds, which essentially means they would be more likely to use products belonging to those corporations. 

In addition to this, absence of other data from economists and epidemiologists for governments to compare and contrast multiple vaccine candidates against a slew of factors means less likelihood of a potential lifesaving vaccine making it through. There is also a lack of translation of core epidemiological data to policymakers to help them make informed choices about which intervention to go ahead with. There's also the challenge of financing the drug/vaccine development and whether the coffers of the government are enough to be able to pay for vaccines. Lastly, existing healthcare infrastructure and human resources at hand would also dictate how the vaccine programme would be implemented. 

Nigeria is a case in point. Much like other malaria-afflicted countries of sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria suffers from challenges of supply chain disruptions due to tribal, and religious conflicts, weak systemic governance, security challenges of insurgent groups (Boko Haram primarily in the case of Nigeria), counterfeit products flooding the system (primarily from India, Nigeria, and Pakistan), high levels of corruption, along with infrastructure challenges, and poor regulatory systems [16].

Governments need to prioritize healthcare spending, pharmaceutical corporations need to price their drugs without the profit incentive, and governments need to build healthcare infrastructure to support widescale vaccine implementation programmes. The current COVID-19 pandemic shows how in the face of adversity, drug and vaccine development can go at a much faster rate if only the countries shared data and came together to come up with solutions. Unfortunately, as previously mentioned in the piece, that doesn't happen until the Global North directly or indirectly suffers from something. The Global North owes it to the Global South, because of the colonial history and neoliberal discriminatory and extractive policies of corporations and countries, to be spearheading the malarial drug and vaccine programmes. 

R21/MM: A better potential contender
RTS,S vaccine has a rather modest efficacy of about 30 per cent. In the light of this information, one major contender stands out which has shown potential in the recent Phase II trials showcasing approximately 77 per cent efficacy — R21/MM [17]. In addition to R21/MM, there are many more contenders in the pipeline across multitude of phases. Figure 4 shows how the global malarial vaccine pipeline looked about a few years back.

Figure 4: Multiple malaria vaccine candidates in different phases of their study in the year 2015. Source: The World Health Organization's Background Paper by WHO's Joint Technical Expert Group and WHO Secretariat

Structurally, R21/MM is very similar to RTS,S. However, "it does not contain the HBsAg in monomer form, only as fusion protein moieties, providing more surface for the CSP on the virus-like particle, making for a more specific immune response" [18]. In addition, R21/MM is mixed with a different adjuvant called Matrix-M, which is a saponin-based adjuvant made of nanometer particles, cholesterol, and phospholipid that is developed by Novavax. This compound is administered alongside vaccines to enhance biological functions: creating robust and long-lasting immune responses that may allow for dose-sparing of vaccines [19].

R21/MM is also the posterchild of true global collaboration involving the University of Oxford, the Kenya Medical Research Institute, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Novavax, the Serum Institute of India, and the Health Sciences Research Institute of Burkina Faso [20]. Multiple peer reviewed studies indicate that R21/MM is safe and immunogenic in African children alongside indicating its high efficacy rate. A larger Phase III at five different African sites, with varying seasonality and malaria loads is planned for R21/MM.

The Road Ahead
Greater healthcare spending, widespread sharing of data, improved outlook of the Global North, better policy programmes with greater coherence of different specialists to guide the policymakers, equitable costing of drugs, and much larger public-private partnerships (at least till the time the current structure of the economic and state system exists) are some of the key aspects that shall guide the future of malaria research. Governments of the Global South need to ramp up funding to their research institutions, and have improved relations on scientific and technological fronts with other countries. Sciences prospers when barriers are removed. There is something inherently beautiful about science — it has all the answers, one only needs to look. The development and approval of RTS,S is a relatively modest but important victory in the much larger battle against malaria that lies ahead of us. 

References 
[1] "WHO recommends groundbreaking malaria vaccine for children at risk", WHO, 6 October 2021. 

[2] Bill Gates, "The U.S. military versus the mosquito", GatesNotes, 25 August 2021.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Apurba S. Sastry and Sandhya Bhat, Essentials of Medical Microbiology (New Delhi, London and Panama: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2018)

[5] Matthew B. Laurens, "RTS,S/AS01 vaccine (Mosquirix™): an overview", Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, Vol. 16, No. 3, 22 October 2019, pp. 480-489. 

[6] Ibid. 

[7] Francis E.G. Cox, "History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors", Parasites Vectors, Vol. 3, No. 5, 1 February 2010, pp. 1-9.

[8] "History of antimalarials", Medicines for Malaria Venture, last accessed on 19 October 2021. 

[9] "Malaria", WHO, 1 April 2021

[10] "Where Malaria Occurs", CDC, last accessed on 19 October 2021.    

[11] "Malaria", CDC, last accessed on 19 October 2021. 

[12] "Malaria's Impact Worldwide", CDC, last accessed on 19 October 2021. 

[13] PIB Delhi, "WHO World Malaria Report 2020", Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, 2 December 2020.

[14] Mellisa de White, "Stanford scholar addresses the problems with philanthropy", Stanford News, 3 December 2018. 

[15] Alexis C. Madrigal, "Against Big Philanthropy", The Atlantic, 28 June 2018.

[16] "WHO and partners take on malaria: the top killer in north-eastern Nigeria", WHO, 16 August 2017.

[17] Catherine Offord, "New Malaria Vaccine Shows Most Efficacy of Any to Date: Small Trial", The Scientist, 26 April 2021.

[18] Krisztian Magori, "Novel R21 vaccine provides hope to save children from malaria in Africa, but more work needs to be done", BugBitteen, 30 April 2021.

[19] Mark Terry, "University of Oxford-Novavax Malaria Vaccine Demonstrates 77% Efficacy in Children", BioSpace, 23 April 2021.

[20] Derek Lowe, "Great Malaria News", Science, 23 April 2021.

 

About the author

Rishabh Kachroo is a PhD Scholar at the International Relations and Governance Studies department, Shiv Nadar University, India.  

 

In Brief
By Harini Madhusudan and Vaishnavi Iyer

Big tech accountability, finally?
On 5 October, Frances Haugen, Facebook whistleblower, testified before the congressional subcommittee. Her testimony called for increased regulation and oversight of Facebook in order to increase privacy and safety. She claims that Facebook has repeatedly broken the US securities law while lying to investors on multiple occasions. 

As of 15 October, Haugen has filed eight separate complaints with the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). According to her statement, almost no one outside of Facebook has knowledge of what happens inside the company. Moreover, she called for the creation of a separate regulatory authority/agency instead of the current oversight board, to have an oversight over Facebook. Her major allegation is that the company puts profits above its user's safety. That it favours growth over moderating harmful content was revealed by her as she highlighted Facebook's internal research which shows Instagram negatively impacts teen mental health. 

On 14 October, in a separate development, but that related to Big Tech, a report by Reuters revealed that the malpractices by Amazon India had caused damage to small retailers in India. Thousands of pages of internal documents of Amazon were examined by Reuters which included emails, strategy papers, and business plans. It has been revealed that the company ran a systematic campaign of creating lookalike products and manipulation of search results by boosting their own product lines in the country. India has been Amazon's largest growth market. The Confederation of All India Traders has demanded the Indian government to order an investigation into the same. 

For example, the Solimo Project in India is said to have had an international impact where Solimo branded health and household products are now on sale on Amazon's US website and Amazon.com. In 2020, Jeff Bezos, in a sworn testimony before the US Congress explained that e-commerce giant prohibits their employees from using the data of individual sellers to help its private label-business. In 2019, an Amazon executive testified against creating their own private-label products or alter its search results in their favour. However, the report by Reuters revealed, at least in India, that these activities have been a part of the formal strategy of Amazon that all high-level executives were aware of. 

The incidents of Facebook and Amazon bring to the forefront the concern raised in 2019 by US Senator Elizabeth Warren. She has been a prominent advocate of the need to break up Amazon and other tech giants. Following the issue with the retailers in India, Warren tweeted, "you can be an umpire or you can be a player, but you can't be both at the same time. Amazon takes advantage of its power to tilt the playing field and crush small businesses. It's long past time to break them." Data security and business manipulation are not new issues but the big tech companies occupy a position of comparative advantage considering their popularity in many countries. Holding them accountable for their actions is a step in the right direction. 

(Rachel Popa and Chandler Ford, "Privacy Implications of the Facebook Whistleblower Testimony," The National Law Review, 15 October 2021; Andrew Wyrich, "Over 40 groups call on Congress to finally pass federal data privacy standard," Daily Dot, 13 October 2021; Aditya Kalra, "Amazon copied products and rigged search results to promote its own brands: Reuters Report," Wire, 15 October 2021; "Amazon India's malpractices induce calls of probe and US antitrust bill," MoneyControl, 16 October 2021) 

Nobel Prize winners announced for 2021
On 6 October, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was jointly awarded to David Julius and Ardem Pataputian. Dr Julius works as a professor of physiology at the University of California, and Dr Pataputian is a molecular biologist at Scripps Research. They discovered receptors for touch and temperature that furthered research on how our nervous system senses mechanical stimuli, heat and cold. The identification of specific pain receptors generated pharmaceutical interest because chronic pain can be addressed by blocking the pain receptors. 

On 5 October, Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann, and Giorgio Parisi were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on complex physical systems, like the Earth's changing climate. The research was hailed by the UN weather agency as "a sign of a consensus forming around man-made global warming". The winners will be awarded USD 1.15 million. One-half of the prize money is to be split between Manabe and Hasselmann for modeling the earth's climate and predicting global warming. The rest half will be given to Parisi who discovered random movements and swirls in gases or liquids that have been applied in areas of neuroscience, machine learning and starling flight formations. 

On 6 October, Benjamin List and David WC MacMillian were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing a new tool to build molecules. The discovery involved constructing a catalyst that has less impact on the environment. Dr List is a chemist and director at the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research and Dr MacMillan is a chemist and a professor at Princeton University. The research has aided organocatalysis, through applying chemistry to build precise "catalysts that reduce waste and streamline the production of existing pharmaceuticals". 

On 7 October, the Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to Abdulrazak Gurnah, a Tanzanian novelist. He has been awarded for his work on colonialism and the fate of refugees in the gulf. He served as a professor of English and Postcolonial literature at the University of Kent. 

David Card, Joshua D Angrist, and Guido W Imbens received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Angrist and Imbens developed research tools to enable economists to test theories using real-life situations. David Card has studied the unintended experiments of examining economic questions such as "whether raising the minimum wage causes people to lose jobs". Maria Ressa, co-founder of Rappler, along with Dmitri Muratov, has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The journalists have been promoting freedom of expression in the Philippines and Russia, respectively for decades. Ressa has worked against disinformation under Duterte's government, while Muratov has been defending the freedom of speech in Russia. (Niklas Pollard, Ludwig Burger and Simon Johnson, "Trio win physics Nobel for work deciphering chaotic climate," Reuters, 6 October 2021; Benjamin Mueller, Marc Santora and Cora Engelbrecht, "Nobel Prize Awarded for Research About Temperature and Touch," The New York Times, 6 October 2021; Sabrina Imbler, Marc Santora and Cora Engelbrecht, "Nobel Prize in Chemistry Awarded to Scientists for Tool That Builds Better Catalysts," The New York Times, 6 October 2021; Derrick Bryson Taylor, "2021 Nobel Prize Winners: Full List," The New York Times, 12 October 2021)


S&T Nuggets
By Akriti Sharma and Lokendra Sharma

Climate and Environment

India: Boom sprayer as a solution to stubble burning
On 10 October, a company based in Bengaluru called nurture.farm developed a boom sprayer that helps in decomposing the stubble after the crop has been harvested. In India, the harvest season comes with a major environmental challenge of stubble burning in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. The farmers usually resort to burning which in turn causes the poor air quality in northern parts of India. The firm has developed a boom sprayer which includes twenty booms spreading like wings on the tractor. The sprayers contain bio-decomposers that take 7 days to disintegrate stubble. Usually, it takes 6-8 weeks for the stubble to disintegrate properly which is why farmers resort to burning. According to the chief technology officer of the firm, quoted by The Hindu, the sprayer takes seven minutes for an acre of land. ( Jacob Koshy, "Boom! A spraying solution is here to stem stubble burning in Haryana fields", The Hindu, 10 October 2021)

China: Biodiversity talks concluded
On 15 October, China, the European Union, and Japan pledged to spend more on slowing the rapid species loss at the COP 15 of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. The pledge was taken while discussing the formation of a new biodiversity pact. France and Britain announced more contributions to biodiversity in their climate budgets. The countries are aiming to bend the biodiversity loss curve. At the meeting, the Chinese President announced a fund of USD 233.21 billion as a part of the "Kunming Biodiversity Fund". Moreover, the EU announced it would double its funding for biodiversity. ("U.N. biodiversity talks end in China's Kunming with new funding pledges", Reuters, 15 October 2021)

Africa: Drought in Kenya leads to widespread hunger
On 15 October, northern parts of Kenya were witnessing drought due to the failure of rains for the second consecutive season. It has affected 2.4 million people and will lead to widespread hunger across the region. According to the Kenya Meteorological Department, quoted by Reuters, much of northern Kenya is forecasted to be sunny and receive below-average rainfall. Climate change has made heatwaves more frequent in the region which often leads to drought. Due to the drought, the food prices are hiking leading to widespread hunger and malnutrition in the children and women in the region. (Baz Ratner, "Drought in northern Kenya pushes millions towards hunger", Reuters, 15 October 2021)

The US: Offshore wind farms along the Gulf of Mexico 
On 13 October, the Biden administration announced plans to build wind farms along the coasts. The plan includes the Gulf of Maine, Central Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, as well as the coasts of New York, the Carolinas, California, and Oregon. The US has already announced its first major commercial offshore wind farm off the coast of Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts. The government has announced two major wind farms on the Californian west coast to produce power from the turbines. The announcement is in line with the climate agenda to cut 50 percent emissions as per 2005 levels by 2030. (Coral Davenport, "Biden Administration Plans Wind Farms Along Nearly the Entire U.S. Coastline", The New York Times, 13 October 2021)

Health
The US: FDA issues guidelines to reduce salt in food
On 13 October, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued guidelines to reduce salt in processed and packaged food. The measure has been taken to avoid the intake of excess sodium by the people. FDA has cited excess intake of salt as a diet epidemic. The guidelines have been issued to reduce the average intake of salt by 12 percent. Use of excess salt results in high blood pressure, kidney failure, and heart attacks. Four out of ten Americans are suffering from blood pressure problems. According to the dietary guidelines for the citizens, one person should not consume more than 2,300 mg of salt in a day. At present, Americans have been consuming 3,400 mg of salt in a day. According to data by the FDA, reducing sodium intake can save 5,00,000 lives in a decade. ("Guidance for Industry: Voluntary Sodium Reduction Goals", Food and Drug Administration, 13 October 2021; Andrew Jacobs, "F.D.A. Issues Guidelines to Reduce Salt in Foods", The New York Times, 13 October 2021)

COVID-19: Three countries pause the use of Moderna vaccine
On 6 October, Sweden and Denmark suspended the use of Moderna's mRNA vaccine due to a rise in the cases of myocarditis and pericarditis. On 7 October, Finland suspended the use of vaccines on people under the age of 30. Myocarditis is a condition in which there is inflammation of the heart muscle which affects its ability to pump blood. Pericarditis is when the outer lining of the heart undergoes inflammation and affects blood flow. These conditions were observed after the second dose. The Swedish Public Health Agency and Finland Health Institute have now recommended the use of Pfizer's mRNA vaccine for people under the age of 30. (R Prasad, "Why three countries have paused Moderna vaccine", The Hindu, 10 October 2021)

The US: Tuberculosis can spread through aerosols
On 19 October, a group of South African researchers found out that tuberculosis can spread through aerosols, like COVID-19. According to the WHO, tuberculosis is the world's deadliest infectious disease after COVID-19. In 2020, it claimed 1.5 million lives globally. Ninety percent of tuberculosis bacteria spread through breathing which means that less transmission happens through coughing. Closed spaces, rooms, and prisons are breeding grounds for tuberculosis and open while well-ventilated spaces can reduce its transmission. Some COVID-19 measures like wearing masks, using sanitizers, and isolation could be used to reduce tuberculosis transmission. (Apoorva Mandavilli, "Tuberculosis, Like Covid, Spreads by Breathing, Scientists Report", The New York Times, 19 October 2021)

Space
Russia: Yulia Peresild returns to earth after shooting first movie in space
On 17 October 2021, the Russian crew comprising actress Yulia Peresild, director Klim Shipenko, and cosmonaut Oleg Novitskiy returned back to earth after spending 12 days aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The Soyuz MS-18 spacecraft safely landed in Kazakhstan and the descent was also filmed. They shot the first movie in space, called 'The Challenge', beating actor Tom Cruise who announced similar plans last year in collaboration with NASA and SpaceX founder Elon Musk. However, the entire operation was not without glitches. The spacecraft had to be docked manually to the ISS. Thereafter, on 15 October, the spacecraft's thrusters fired unexpectedly during tests, destabilizing the ISS for 30 minutes. The success of this mission has given a boost to Russia's space industry, which has been struggling to keep pace with developments happening in the US space industry. (Ashley Strickland, "Russian crew wraps trailblazing movie in space, safely returns to Earth", CNN, 17 October 2021)  

China: New crew boards country's space station 
On 16 October, a new three-member crew docked at China's first permanent space station, Tiangong. Launched in April this year, Tiangong will host this second crew for the next six months which will be China's longest crewed mission so far. Wang Yaping, the only woman in the crew, has become the first Chinese woman to board the station and is expected to be the first Chinese female spacewalker too. According to an Associated Press report, the astronauts would "do three spacewalks to install equipment in preparation for expanding the station, assess living conditions in the Tianhe module, and conduct experiments in space medicine and other fields". China is planning to send multiple crews as well as modules in its quest to expand the Tiangong, which is the Chinese alternative to the International Space Station, reflecting the country's space ambitions. ("New crew docks at China's first permanent space station", Associated Press, 16 October 2021) 

China: Launch of hypersonic missile denied by Foreign Ministry  
On 17 October, Financial Times reported that "China tested a nuclear-capable hypersonic missile in August that circled the globe before speeding towards its target". Based on inputs from five people familiar with the test, the report claimed that the hypersonic missile had glide capabilities. Unlike the ballistic missiles which follow a fixed parabolic trajectory, gliding hypersonic missiles can maneuver in flight. This makes the latter very hard to detect and destroy by an air defense system. If China fully develops its capabilities, it will make the US missile defence less effective. The Chinese foreign ministry, however, denied the report's claims and asserted that the test was about a spacecraft and not a missile. Its goal was to reduce "the use-cost of spacecraft" and "provide a convenient and affordable way to make a round trip for mankind's peaceful use of space". The US has maintained silence over the tests with official statements only showing 'concerns' with growing Chinese capabilities. ("China calls missile launch 'routine test' of new technology", Associated Press, 19 October 2021)

Technology
Europe: Facebook announces mega-hiring plans to launch 'metaverse' in the EU 
On 18 October, Facebook announced plans to hire 10,000 people in the EU in its quest to launch 'metaverse'. According to Nick Clegg and Javier Olivan, Vice Presidents at Facebook, the metaverse is "a new phase of interconnected virtual experiences using technologies like virtual and augmented reality. At its heart is the idea that by creating a greater sense of 'virtual presence', interacting online can become much closer to the experience of interacting in person." Facebook's founder and CEO have been touting metaverse since July this year with plans to transform the company from a social media one to a metaverse one. With three billion global users across multiple platforms like Facebook, WhatsApp and Instagram, the transition would be a difficult one owing to Facebook's poor data privacy record and antitrust moves in the US, the EU, and elsewhere. ("Facebook plans to hire 10,000 in EU to build 'metaverse'", Reuters, 18 October 2021; Nick Clegg and Javier Olivan, "Investing in European Talent to Help Build the Metaverse", Facebook, 17 October 2021)

Russia: Facial recognition-based payment system launched in Moscow metro 
On 15 October, Moscow metro launched a virtual payment system (cardless, phoneless) based on facial recognition technology across 240 metro stations. Moscow's Mayor claimed in a Twitter post that they are "the first in the world to introduce Face Pay on this scale". He added: "The technology is new and very complex, we will continue to work on improving it". While the Moscow authorities have been claiming that the entire process would be encrypted and would make availing the metro services easier, especially during peak hours. However, activists have raised alarm bells over privacy issues. Moscow already has a massive surveillance system with over 1,75,000 cameras monitoring citizens. (Pjotr Sauer, "Privacy fears as Moscow metro rolls out facial recognition pay system", The Guardian, 15 October 2021; "Moscow says it is first to launch large-scale metro facial ID payment system", Reuters, 15 October 2021)   

China: Last major US social networking company exits the country 
On 14 October, the US-based Microsoft Corporation announced its plans to close LinkedIn in China, marking the exit of the last major US-based social networking company from the tightly controlled and regulated Chinese market. Other platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube are already banned in the country. LinkedIn is a social networking platform that allows professionals and academics to connect with each other while also helping prospective candidates in finding jobs. After the closure of LinkedIn, Microsoft will launch a new platform called InJobs with limited functionalities. Mohak Shroff, writing on LinkedIn's official blog, wrote: "Later this year, we will launch InJobs, a new, standalone jobs application for China. InJobs will not include a social feed or the ability to share posts or articles". (Mohak Shroff, "China: Sunset of Localized Version of LinkedIn and Launch of New InJobs App Later This Year", LinkedIn Official Blog, 14 October 2021; "Microsoft to shut down LinkedIn in China, cites 'challenging' environment", Reuters, 15 October 2021)

The US: Tether Holdings Limited fined USD 41 million 
On 15 October 2021, in a significant development for the cryptocurrency ecosystem, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission in the US fined Tether Holdings Limited USD 41 million "for making untrue or misleading statements and omissions of material fact in connection with the US dollar tether token (USDT) stablecoin". Unlike bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies in general which fluctuate wildly as they are not backed by anything, stable coins are backed by something in the real world and hence their value stays 'stable'. USDT, one such stable coin promoted by Tether Holdings Limited, has been claiming that its coins are 100 percent backed by US dollars. The CTFC, however, found "that from at least 1 June, 2016 to 25 February, 2019, Tether misrepresented to customers and the market that it maintained sufficient US dollar reserves to back every USDT in circulation with the 'equivalent amount of corresponding fiat currency' held by Tether and 'safely deposited' in Tether's bank accounts". ("CFTC Orders Tether and Bitfinex to Pay Fines Totaling $42.5 Million", Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Release Number 8450-21, 15 October 2021)

About the authors:
Harini Madhusudan, Lokendra Sharma and Akriti Sharma are PhD Scholars at the School of Conflict and Security Studies, NIAS. Vaishnavi Iyer is a Research Assistant at NIAS.

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